I'm very much enjoying William Darymple's "The Last Mughal" and today I read a passage that resonated with me. Zahar was the last Mughal emperor and he was fond of writing Sufi poetry:
Zafar’s poetry, however, existed on a higher plane than this. Like much verse of the period, it was deeply imbued with the Sufi ideals of love, which were regarded as much the surest route to a God who was seen to be located not in the heavens but deep within the human heart. For if the world of the heart lay at the centre of Sufism, it also formed the cornerstone of the principal literary form in late Mughal Delhi—the ghazal, which derived its name from the Arabic words “talking to a woman about love. The love of the ghazal poet was ambiguous—it was rarely made entirely clear whether it was sacred or worldly love to which the poet referred. This ambiguity was deliberate, for just as the longing of the soul for union with God was believed to be as compelling and as all-embracing as the longing of the lover for the beloved, both loves could be carried to the point of insanity or what Sufis called fana—self-annihilation and immersion in the beloved. In the eyes of the Sufi poets, this search for the God within liberated the seeker from the restrictions of narrowly orthodox Islam, encouraging the devotee to look beyond the letter of the law to its mystical essence.
Later Darymple writes that:
This was an attitude to Hinduism that Zafar—and many of his Mughal forebears—shared. It is clear that Zafar consciously saw his role as a protector of his Hindu subjects, and a moderator of extreme Muslim demands and the chilling Puritanism of many of the ‘ulama. One of Zafar’s verses says explicitly that Hinduism and Islam “share the same essence,” and his court lived out this syncretic philosophy, and both celebrated and embodied this composite Hindu-Muslim Indo-Islamic civilisation, at every level. The Hindu elite of Delhi went to the Sufi shrine of Nizamuddin, could quote Hafiz and were fond of Persian poetry. Their children—especially those of the administrative Khattri and Kayasth castes—studied under maulvis and attended the more liberal madrasas, bringing offerings of food for their teachers on Hindu festivals. For their part, Muslims followed the Emperor in showing honour to Hindu holy men, while many in the court, including Zafar himself, followed the old Mughal custom, borrowed from upper-caste Hindus, of drinking only Ganges water. Zafar’s extensive team of Hindu astrologers rarely left his side.
It was very interesting to read of this tolerance at the time between the Hindus and Moslems as well as between the Shia and Sunni sects. The author has himself lived in Delhi for the past twenty years but holidays in England during the summer months. I'm looking forward to reading more about India in his other books.
Dalrymple's overview of the consequences of the sepoy rebellion is quite insightful:
There was nothing inevitable about the demise and extinction of the Mughals, as the sepoys’ dramatic surge towards the court of Delhi showed. But in the years to come, as Muslim prestige and learning sank, and Hindu confidence, wealth, education and power increased, Hindus and Muslims would grow gradually apart, as British policies of divide and rule found willing collaborators among the chauvinists of both faiths. The rip in the closely woven fabric of Delhi’s composite culture, opened in 1857, slowly widened into a great gash, and at Partition in 1947 finally broke in two. As the Indian Muslim elite emigrated en masse to Pakistan, the time would soon come when it would be almost impossible to imagine that Hindu sepoys could ever have rallied to the Red Fort and the standard of a Muslim emperor, joining with their Muslim brothers in an attempt to revive the Mughal Empire.
Of course, the events of 1857 also led to the formal dissolution of the British East India Company and its being taken over by the British Government.
The following appeared in my inbox today from the Meher Baba Centre in Bombay and quoted from Lord Meher, Original Publication, Bhau Kalchuri, Vol. 7, pp. 2391 – 2393:
(Feb.1939) On one occasion, referring to the purpose of his visits to different shrines, tombs or dargahs of saints and Perfect Masters, Baba stated:
By my living presence, I clean the tangled atmosphere of the shrines of the dead saints, Sadgurus and Qutubs. This complicated atmosphere is of the thought world. Thought force is really very strong and powerful. Chaitanya did not go to places of pilgrimage for the sake of pilgrimage, but for cleansing their atmosphere which were full of the sanskaras of thoughts of worldly people. Chaitanya was a Hindu Perfect Master, during the time of Shankara. He originated the ecstatic song or evocation, “Hare Krishna, Hare Ram!”
For my work, a pilgrim on the third plane is more helpful than the place of a dead Master of the seventh plane; but a well-known dead saint or Master may have a strong influence due to the multitudes going to his tomb. That is why I thin down the effect of this complicated thought atmosphere by visiting such places.
Meher Baba went to the shrine of Mu’inuddin Chishti several times. Chishti is responsible for more converts to Islam in India that any other man. He converted over two hundred thousand people during his time in India; no one else ever did such, even the Mughal warlords during their invasions. On a later occasion, Meher Baba revealed that the Sufi Master Mu’inuddin Khwaja Saheb Chishti was the Qutub-e-Irshad of his time.
I asked Bard to explain the term Qutub-e-Irshad (link):
The term "Qutub-e-Irshad" is a composite phrase consisting of three words:
Qutub: This word in Arabic can have multiple meanings depending on the context. In Sufi terminology, it often refers to a "pole star" or a spiritual guide who serves as a central figure within a specific lineage or order. It implies the individual holds high spiritual authority and wisdom.
e-: This is a Persian connecting particle, meaning "of" or "belonging to."
Irshad: This word in Arabic signifies "guidance" or "instruction."
Therefore, when combined, "Qutub-e-Irshad" translates roughly to "Pole Star of Guidance" or "Master of Instruction." It refers to a highly respected spiritual leader within a Sufi tradition who offers guidance and instruction on the path of spiritual enlightenment.
Meher Baba explained that at any given time on Earth there are five Qutubs or Perfect Masters overseeing the affairs of the world. One of these five in charge and is referred to as the Qutub-e-Irshad. Of the five Qutubs in Meher Baba's early life, Sai Baba was the Qutub-e-Irshad:
Was this ascetic a Hindu or a Muslim? People of every religion and caste in India would seek him out. This holy man belonged to no caste or religion or "ism." He himself was the true fakir, the Emperor of Emperors. Why would people journey hundreds of miles to see him? Because his eyes shone brilliantly with a magnetism that drew them towards him. The light in his eyes attracted thousands to his feet.
Hidden in this extraordinary fakir was the Qutub-e-Irshad of the age — the head of the spiritual hierarchy and the leading Perfect Master of his time. He who held the key to all worlds and universes in his very hands appeared as a ragged beggar in a nondescript village in India. In his hands the conflicting forces of the world's turmoil and the throes of the universes were kept balanced! It may be difficult for a worldly-minded materialist to believe this, but it is a spiritual fact. Source.
Bard had this to say about Mu’inuddin Chishti (link):
Mu'inuddin Chishti: A Revered Figure in Sufi Islam
Mu'inuddin Chishti, also known as Khwaja Gharib Nawaz ("comforter of the poor"), was a revered Sufi preacher, scholar, and mystic who played a significant role in spreading and shaping the Chishti Order of Sunni Islam in the Indian subcontinent. Here's a summary of his life and contributions:
Life and Lineage:
Born in Sistan, Persia (present-day Iran) in 1141 CE.
Descended from both Prophet Muhammad and Ali ibn Abi Talib.
Received spiritual guidance from renowned Sufi masters in his youth.
Embarked on a pilgrimage to Mecca, spending time in Baghdad and Delhi before settling in Ajmer, India, in 1206 CE.
Contributions:
Established the Chishti Order in India: He is considered the founder of the Chishti Order in the Indian subcontinent, known for its emphasis on love, devotion, and inclusivity.
Promoted interfaith dialogue: He cultivated relationships with people of different faiths, fostering peaceful coexistence and mutual understanding.
Emphasized service to humanity: His teachings stressed compassion, generosity, and service to the poor and marginalized.
Attracted diverse followers: His charismatic personality and message resonated with people from all walks of life, regardless of caste, creed, or social status.
Left a lasting legacy: His tomb in Ajmer became a major pilgrimage site, attracting devotees from all over the world.
Significance:
Mu'inuddin Chishti's contributions are considered pivotal in the spread of Islam in India, particularly Sufism, which offered a more mystical and inward-looking approach to faith.
His teachings and personal example resonated with diverse communities, contributing to social harmony and interfaith dialogue in the region.
He continues to be revered as a spiritual guide and source of inspiration, not just for Muslims but for people of all faiths and backgrounds.
Further Exploration:
If you're interested in learning more about Mu'inuddin Chishti, here are some resources:
I watched an interesting video today about Tunisia's Sufi tradition. I asked ChatGPT for more information.
Can you provide some details of the history of Sufism in Tunisia?
Sufism, which refers to Islamic mysticism, has a long history in Tunisia dating back to the early Islamic period. The first Sufi orders or Tariqas were established in the country in the 12th century, with the arrival of Sufi saints from other parts of the Muslim world.
The two most important Sufi orders in Tunisia are the Qadiriyya and the Shadhiliyya. The Qadiriyya order was introduced to Tunisia in the 16th century and became popular in the 18th century, while the Shadhiliyya order was introduced in the 17th century and became dominant in the 19th century.
Sufism played an important role in the spread of Islam in Tunisia, particularly in rural areas where Sufi leaders or marabouts were often the main religious authorities. The marabouts were also involved in social and political activities, and their influence extended beyond religious matters.
During the colonial period, Sufi orders played an important role in the resistance to French rule, and many Sufi leaders were involved in the struggle for independence. After independence, Sufi orders continued to play a prominent role in Tunisian society, particularly in rural areas.
In recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in Sufism in Tunisia, with a growing number of young people joining Sufi orders and attending Sufi gatherings. Sufi leaders have also been active in promoting interfaith dialogue and tolerance in the country.
I sought to find out a little more about the origins of Tunisia as a country.
How did Tunisia originate as a country? How it is different from its neighbors like Libya and Algeria?
Tunisia, like many other countries in North Africa, has a complex history of multiple civilizations and empires. The region that is now Tunisia was inhabited by Berber tribes since ancient times, and was subsequently conquered by Phoenicians, Romans, Vandals, Byzantines, Arabs, and Ottoman Turks.
The modern nation-state of Tunisia emerged as a result of the French colonization of the country in the late 19th century. Tunisia became a French protectorate in 1881 and remained so until 1956 when it gained independence.
Compared to its neighbors Libya and Algeria, Tunisia has several unique characteristics. Firstly, Tunisia is the smallest country in North Africa in terms of land area, with a population of around 12 million people. It is also the most densely populated country in North Africa.
Secondly, Tunisia has a long history of political stability, with a relatively smooth transition from authoritarianism to democracy after the Tunisian Revolution in 2011. This is in contrast to the ongoing conflicts and instability in Libya and Algeria.
Thirdly, Tunisia has a more diverse economy compared to Libya and Algeria, with a strong focus on tourism, agriculture, and manufacturing. Tunisia is also known for its highly educated workforce, with a literacy rate of over 80%.
Lastly, Tunisia has a unique culture that has been shaped by its history and geography. Its location at the crossroads of Mediterranean and African cultures has given rise to a rich culinary tradition, as well as a diverse artistic and musical heritage.
Returning to the topic of Sufism, I asked:
Who were some of the best known Sufi saints who are associated with Sufism in Tunisia?
Sufism, or Islamic mysticism, has a rich history in Tunisia, with many prominent Sufi saints having emerged over the centuries. Here are some of the best-known Sufi saints associated with Sufism in Tunisia:
Sidi Ali Azouz: A 16th-century Sufi saint who is considered one of the most important figures in Tunisian Sufism. He is credited with spreading the Qadiriyya Sufi order throughout the country.
Sidi Bou Said: A 13th-century Sufi saint who is widely revered in Tunisia. He founded a Sufi order known as the Nasiriyya, and his tomb in the coastal town of Sidi Bou Said is a popular pilgrimage site.
Sidi Belhassen Chedly: A 19th-century Sufi saint who is known for his emphasis on spirituality and piety. He founded a Sufi order known as the Chedliyya, which is still active today.
Sidi Ali Ben Aoun: A 16th-century Sufi saint who is considered one of the most influential figures in Tunisian Sufism. He founded a Sufi order known as the Aouniyya, which continues to be active in Tunisia and other parts of North Africa.
Sidi Ahmed Tijani: Although he was born in Algeria, Sidi Ahmed Tijani was an influential Sufi saint who spent much of his life in Tunisia. He founded the Tijaniyya Sufi order, which is now one of the largest Sufi orders in the world.
These are just a few examples of the many Sufi saints who have played important roles in the development of Sufism in Tunisia.
I asked about the differences between Sufism and mainstream Islam.
How does Sufism differ from mainstream or more traditional Islam?
Sufism, also known as Islamic mysticism, is a spiritual and mystical dimension of Islam that emphasizes the inward search for God and the purification of the soul. While Sufism is a part of Islam, it differs from mainstream or more traditional Islam in several ways:
Emphasis on spiritual experience: Sufism places a greater emphasis on the individual's personal experience of God than traditional Islam, which focuses more on adherence to ritual practices and adherence to Islamic law.
Importance of spiritual guides: Sufism places great importance on the role of spiritual guides, known as Sufi masters or sheikhs, who help their disciples on their path to spiritual enlightenment. Traditional Islam also acknowledges the importance of religious scholars, but does not place the same emphasis on spiritual guides.
Use of music and dance: Sufism often incorporates music and dance as a means of reaching a state of spiritual ecstasy and connection with God. This is in contrast to traditional Islam, which generally discourages music and dancing.
Tolerance and universalism: Sufism often promotes tolerance, universalism, and a focus on the unity of all religions and people. This can be seen as different from some more traditional interpretations of Islam, which may emphasize the separation of Muslims from non-Muslims and the importance of adhering strictly to Islamic law.
Focus on love and compassion: Sufism often emphasizes the importance of love and compassion in the spiritual journey, and encourages the cultivation of these qualities as a means of purifying the soul. Traditional Islam also places importance on these qualities, but may not place the same emphasis on their role in spiritual development.
It is worth noting that Sufism is a diverse and multifaceted tradition with many different interpretations and practices. As such, not all Sufis may adhere to all of the above characteristics, and there may be some overlap between Sufism and traditional Islam.
I asked about the status of Sufism in Indonesia.
What is the status of Sufism in modern day Indonesia? Is it widely practiced or it is marginalized?
Sufism has a long and deep history in Indonesia and is still widely practiced today. In fact, Indonesia is considered one of the largest centers of Sufism in the world. Sufism has been an integral part of the Islamic tradition in Indonesia since the arrival of Islam in the archipelago in the 13th century.
Today, Sufism is practiced by a significant portion of the Muslim population in Indonesia. Many Muslims in Indonesia are followers of Sufi orders, such as the Naqshbandi, Qadiriyya, and Shattariyah orders. These orders have established networks of mosques, Islamic schools, and charitable organizations throughout the country.
Sufi leaders, known as kyai or ulama, continue to play an important role in Indonesian society, offering spiritual guidance and social services to their followers. In addition to their spiritual and religious roles, Sufi leaders have also been involved in social and political activism, including advocating for democracy, human rights, and environmental protection.
While Sufism has faced some marginalization in Indonesia due to the rise of more conservative and fundamentalist interpretations of Islam, it continues to be a vibrant and influential part of the country's religious landscape. Many Indonesians see Sufism as a way to reconcile Islamic teachings with local traditions and cultures, and as a means of promoting tolerance, pluralism, and social justice.
I asked about important historical figures in the history of Indonesian Sufism.
Who are some of the most important saints in Indonesian Sufism?
Indonesia has a rich tradition of Sufism, and there are many important Sufi saints who are venerated by Indonesian Muslims. Here are a few examples:
Sunan Bonang: A 16th-century Sufi saint who is considered one of the most important figures in Indonesian Sufism. He is associated with the Wali Songo, a group of nine Muslim saints who spread Islam in Java. Sunan Bonang is known for his emphasis on the importance of love, compassion, and harmony in the spiritual path.
Syekh Abdul Qadir Jailani: A 12th-century Sufi saint who is highly revered in Indonesia. He is associated with the Qadiriyya Sufi order, which has a large following in Indonesia. Syekh Abdul Qadir Jailani is known for his emphasis on the importance of repentance and seeking God's forgiveness.
Syekh Siti Jenar: A 15th-century Sufi saint who is associated with the mystical tradition of Java. He is known for his controversial teachings, which challenged traditional Islamic orthodoxy and emphasized the unity of all religions. Despite facing persecution and condemnation from some quarters, Syekh Siti Jenar continues to be venerated by many Indonesians.
Syekh Ahmad Dahlan: A 19th-century Sufi saint who founded the Muhammadiyah movement, one of the largest Islamic organizations in Indonesia. He emphasized the importance of education and social reform in the Islamic community, and sought to promote a more moderate and tolerant interpretation of Islam.
Hamka: A 20th-century Sufi saint who was a prolific writer and Islamic scholar. He played a key role in promoting a more modern and progressive interpretation of Islam in Indonesia, and his writings continue to be widely read and influential today.
These are just a few examples of the many important Sufi saints in Indonesian history. The diversity and richness of Indonesian Sufism is reflected in the many different Sufi orders, traditions, and practices found throughout the country.
My posts are less frequent now that this blog has become mainly a vehicle for whatever spiritual observations I might make. It's far easier to post to my Mathematics or Alternative News blogs. Writing about spiritual matters is less easy. However, having recently finished E. Michael Jones's "The Jewish Revolutionary Spirit and its Effect on World History", I think it's time to put some of my reflections down in writing.
Jones wrote his book from a Catholic perspective because that's the religion that he follows. However, I firmly rejected Catholicism when I was in high school, in Grade 11. The belief in Christ's resurrection from the dead, his virgin birth, his ascension into heaven and the like suddenly seemed like ridiculous fantasies. In 1965, I embraced atheism and remained an atheist until early 1973 until I reconnected with Theosophy and eastern mysticism. Labelling myself an atheist is perhaps too strong a word as it seems to connect me to card-carrying atheists like Richard Dawkins who proselytise with religious fervour. During my time at University I'd read books about Buddhism, Hinduism, Zen and so on but spiritually there was no connection with the content. I was processing what I was reading at an intellectual level.
Figure 1: St Theresa of Avila
From 1973 to 1993, I certainly believed in planes of consciousness beyond the physical and by implication God as the pinnacle of consciousness and a goal toward which myself and the lifestream were ascending. Fortunately, I came to the light of Meher Baba is 1993 and it all became clear or at least clearer. However, I was never hostile to Catholicism, at least not the same way that the Jews had been. I had no time for the hierarchy of the Church but great respect for some of its saints such as St. Francis of Assisi, St. John of the Cross and Saint Theresa of Avila. To quote from pages 1271 and 1272 of the Online Edition of Lord Meher:
Desmond then asked, "Are there any true saints and holy priests in Christianity?"
"There were saints," Baba answered, "but the Christian priests are the same type as those priests in every other religion throughout the world. Out of selfishness, priests create and propagate their own customs, tenets and practices, thereby crippling religion. All these rites, rituals and ceremonies are the dry husk of the corn."
It seems in a sense that the Jews are God's chosen people because they seem to be the ones who are the most ready to attack hierarchies that they perceive to be oppressive such as the Catholic Church around the time of the Reformation. The alternatives, such as Protestantism in the case of the Church, that they champion however, turn out to be little better than what they replace. In the case of Communism, championed as an alternative to the rich-poor divide, the results were far worse. As Jones say in his book, the atheistic Jews like Marx were the most dangerous of all because, having abandoned belief in the coming of their Messiah, they believed political ideologies, like Communism, could act as a replacement messiah and save the world.
Figure 2: Christian Zionists
Of course, no political system or organisation will solve the world's problems because it will be run by human beings who are firmly in the grip of their egos. Catholics like E. Michael Jones are hoping that disillusionment with humanity's descent into moral chaos will lead to a resurgence of faith that will fill the now largely empty churches. I don't think that's likely.
Catholicism seems to have dealt a mortal blow with the pedophilia revelations that keep being trumpeted gleefully by the mainstream media. Protestantism is fragmented and even linked to Messianic Judaism in the case of the Christian Zionists. Buddhism is halfway between a religion and a philosophy and there are certainly aspects of it that can be useful to a humanity that is striving to find its moral compass again. Islam remains a powerful religious force but the long-standing Shia/Sunni split is being exploited successfully by its enemies to set the one against the other. Additionally and unfortunately, the majority Sunni variant is currently going through a phase whereby it is very focused on the extrinsic (outer rituals) as opposed to an intrinsic (Sufi) orientation. As such it is an unlikely candidate to carry the flame of spirituality further into the twenty-first century.
Israel is fearful of Sunni Islam, surrounded as it is so many of its adherents, and will do everything necessary to undermine and weaken it. The last thing that it wants is to find itself opposed to the North, West and South by a Caliphate. Despite the Israeli rhetoric about how dangerous Iran is, I suspect that all is not as it seems. My feeling is that the two countries have a secret agreement whereby some engineered conflict will lead to an Iranian invasion of Saudi Arabia and an Israel intervention. The result will be an expansion of both countries borders and many Sunni Moslems will suddenly find themselves in Shia or Israeli controlled territory.
Figure 3: Greater Israel
On a different but related note, Israel's increasingly close ties to India (and thus Hinduism) may be part of longer term strategy. India is purchasing large amounts of Israeli military technology and the tension between Pakistan and India is perennial. Given Israeli technological prowess and the backdoors that have built into the software and hardware that they sell, it would be easy for its hackers to trigger an Indian missile launch that might lead to all out war, perhaps involving nuclear weapons. This might seriously weaken both countries and lead to a refugee crisis of staggering proportions. Israel remains far enough away so as to not be affected by fallout or refugees. Zionists have no love of Hinduism, nor any religion, that might pose an obstacle to their plans for global hegemony. Refugee crises are an ideal way of diffusing a native population and diluting the populations into which they are forced to assimilate.
I don't think that Israel will succeed in its plans for global hegemony. Historically, the Jewish Elite has always overplayed its hand and the rank and file Jews have payed dearly for it. This time around, I don't think it will any different. Jewish disillusionment with their leadership and disillusionment with messianic fantasies will encourage the majority to finally join the mainstream of humanity. Out of the turmoil of Hindus versus Sunni Moslems and Sunni Moslems versus Shia Moslems, a general disillusionment with religion (already well underway in Western countries) as a source of division will develop and deepen. The West will already have reached its spiritual nadir and looking for a way back up to the light. That's when I think that Meher Baba's teachings will begin to appeal to a bewildered humanity in search of spiritual guidance. His acceptance of all religions and his emphasis on the inner experience of the intrinsic truths of a religion rather than adherence to its outer rituals will be key. Jai Baba!
